Jaina caves at Udaigiri and Khandgiri were cut in Puri, Odisha. These were simple caves reflecting the asceticism of Jina order. But the entrances were carved.
It was a first serious challenge to the brahmanical religion and evils of varna system.
Buddhism
Causes of Spread (apart from the common ones with Jainism)
Buddhism found ready audience in non-Vedic lands and specially Magadha which was looked down upon in the brahmanical religion.
It used Pali + the personality of Buddha + clear distinction from brahmanical religion.
Buddhist sangha was very organized and got state patronage.
It was pragmatic and protected the interests of its powerful target groups. Eg. Debtors and slaves cannot enter sangha to protect the interests of money lenders & slave owners. It respected political authority.
Buddhism and Gana Sanghas
It is known that Buddhism was close to Gana Sangha in its philosophy of kingship (social contract), customs etc. In terms of organization as well it was close to the gana sangha model. Regular fortnightly meetings were held, the views of monks were heard and decisions arrived at in accordance with the rules of the sangha. This is in sharp contrast with the monarchical rule. Periodic councils were held - first @ Rajgriha, second @ Vaishali and 3rd @ PP. 4th was held by Kanishka @ Kashmir.
Similarities between Buddhism and Brahmanical Religion
Both didn’t advocate production and labor rather lived on alms.
Both emphasized carrying out family obligations, protecting private property and respecting the political authority.
Bot supported social order based on classes - for Buddhists, it was based on action and for Brahmans, it was based on birth.
In reality, the status of shudras didn’t change materially even in Buddhism. Although they were admitted into sangha, their position continued to be low. We hear of Buddha going into a brahmana assembly, a kshatriya assembly, a vaishya assembly but not a shudra assembly.
Buddhism as a Revolution Against the Class Based Order
Buddhism was more socially inclusive than brahmanical, but it didn’t really change much at the ground. Buddhist texts and order are not free from bias.
Buddha and his monks broke the tradition of restrictions on taking food. They could take food from anybody.
Buddhism also rejects superiority of brahmans and places kshatriyas on top. But, Buddhist texts were biased against the lower classes.
Soldiers had to seek king’s permission, slaves their master’s permission and debtors had to pay off their debts before joining sangha.
Varna and jati were supposed to be immaterial in attaining moksha but buddhist sangha had clear dominance of upper classes like brahmans, kshatriyas and gahapatis.
It uses the word brahmana for someone who has led an exemplary life. Brahmans joining the sangha were considered to be a great asset and mentioned in literature.
Dhamma
Asoka clearly made a distinction between his personal belief in Buddhism and obligations as a king to ensure that all religions are respected. Thus we find that his inscriptions are of 2 kinds. The smaller group is addressed to the sangha as a lay upasaka king. Here he speaks of his belief in Buddhism, relationship with sangha and even shows a hint of intolerance when he proclaims that the dissident monks and nuns should be expelled from the sangha. In his larger set of inscriptions he is seen as a king. These describe his dhamma and show amazing level of tolerance.
Some historians have interpreted dhamma as Buddhism arguing Asoka wanted to spread Buddhism among all his subjects. But dhamma was not Buddhism. The description of dhamma in the edicts clearly shows that it was a broader set of ethics intended to explore ways of governance and to reduce social conflicts. Asokan empire consisted not of a monolithic society but a multitude of societies. There were Hellenistic society in NW with division between slaves and masters, there was the varna based society in the plains, there was the clan based society in the forests. Dhamma was an attempt to increase tolerance and to bring harmony. There were different religions, different practices. Dhamma was merely a set of unifying principles.
Dhamma principles were set such that they could be embraced by any group (much like Sulh-i-Kul). It was not defined in terms of rigid rules but just broad principles and the implementation was left vague so that it could be moulded by each group according to their own needs while still satisfying the overarching principle.
Sources :- We get a comprehensive account of Nalanda university from Huen Tsang which also gives invaluable information about the location of other buddhist shrines in India. I - Tsing studied at Nalanda and left an account of his travels including his stay @ Nalanda.
Patrons :- It appears that Kumargupta built the first monastery at Nalanda. Its site was not too far nor too close to the city. Hence it was selected as an ideal centre for the pursuit of Buddhist studies by monks. Subsequent later Gupta kings made additions and expansions to the buildings. Even Harsha built the a monastery here and surrounded the university buildings with a high wall.
Scale :- In the 10th century, there were over 10,000 resident students, 1500 teachers and 1500 workers here. They came from all parts of India and foreign lands (like Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, Sumatra, Java and Sri Lanka). Its chancellorship was reserved for India’s foremost buddhist scholar.
Curriculum :- Admission to Nalanda was by oral examination. This was done by a professor at the entrance hall. He was called Dvara Pandita. Proficiency in Sanskrit was necessary, as it was the medium of instruction. All Chinese monks going to India for higher studies in Buddhism had to go to Java and brush up their Sanskrit. The standards required were high. Casts, creed and nationality were no barriers in keeping with the Buddhist spirit. The study of Mahayana was compulsory for Buddhists. One could also study the doctrines of 18 other Buddhist sects. One could also study secular subjects like science, medicine, astrology, fine-arts, literature etc. The six systems of Hindu philosophy were also taught. The observatory of the university was situated in a very tall building. Lectures, debates and discussions were part of the educational curriculum. There were three large libraries.
Impact :- A vast amount of what came to comprise Tibetan Buddhism, both its Mahayana and Vajrayan traditions, stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nalanda teachers and traditions. Other forms of Buddhism, such as the Mahayana Buddhism followed in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan, flourished within the walls of the ancient university. A number of scholars have associated some Mahayana texts of SE and east Asia with the Buddhist tradition at Nālandā.
Sources :- Vikramshila is known to us mainly through Tibetan sources, especially the writings of Tāranātha, the Tibetan monk historian of 16th-17th Century AD.
Patrons :- It is situated in Antichak, Bhagalpur. It was said to be a sister institution of Nalanda and was said to have been founded under the patronage of king Dharmpala. Under the Pala kings it rose and rivaled Nalanda and bade well to outshine it.
Scale and organization :- There were six entrances to this building and near each entrance was a monastery for resident monks about 150 teachers were accommodated in each monastery. It was managed by a staff of Professors. Adhyaksha > Dvara pandit > Maha Pandit > Pandit > Acharya > monks.
Curriculum :- There were six Dvara Pandits. Here too high standards were maintained. The curriculum of studies was similar to that of Nalanda. Here preference was given to the Tantric form of Buddhism.
Influence :- Sri Gnana was the most famous scholar of Vikramshila. His fame spread far and wide as the propagator of Buddhism in Tibet Tibetans hold his name in the highest veneration. When he was here, he was invited to teach and propagate Buddhism in Tibet. He postponed it for some time till he completed his work here and then undertook the task.
Sources :- Huen Tsang and Ip Tsing are our sources.
Patrons :- The Maitraka kings who ruled Western India constructed a monastery at Vallabhi (their capital).
Scale and organization :- There were about 100 monasteries with about 6,000 Buddhist monks. I-Tsing records that foreign students were found at Vallabhi. They come from many lands far and near. There was a large library.
Curriculum :- While Nalanda was the centre for Mahayana Buddhism, Vallabhi achieved fame as the centre for Hinayana Buddhism. Most of the monks belong to the Sammitiya sect and precedence was given to Sammitiya doctrines at this university. The course of studies included comparative religion. The six systems of Hindu philosophy and various other schools of Buddhism, Politics, Law, Agriculture, Economics also formed a part of the curriculum.
Mahayana Buddhism
Nature & Character of the Split
The emergence of Mahayana didn’t lead to a sudden split in the sangha.
It didn’t emerge out of a difference in the devotional practices of the common followers. It emerged out of a difference in ideas and practices of a group of monks. These differences didn’t force the monks of Mahayana to live separately from the Hinayana monks immediately given the centrality of sangha rules which governed the life in monasteries. This is confirmed by the Chinese travelers who saw both monks living together.
Differences with Hinayana
The changes can be traced over a period of time. With the increase in the number of followers in the lay community (upasaks) the monks may have been called upon to perform life cycle rituals linked to birth, death, marriage etc. This may have introduced a larger number of rituals than originally introduced and a process of gradual change was set into motion. Places of worship like small stupas (derived from ancestor worship in chalcolithic / megalithic cultures) gave way to more elaborate procedures.
Hinayana believes in arhat philosophy i.e. follow Buddha’s path to attain nibbana or become an arhat. Mahayana says follow Buddha’s path to attain buddhahood (great wisdom), but don’t attain nibbana, rather become a bodhisattva and help others in attaining nibbana.
Mahayana worshipped Buddha’s and bodhisattvas’ images while Hinayana didn’t. Earlier Buddhism held veneration of stupas and relics meritorious but didn’t consider it essential. Mahayana laid great emphasis on devotion to Buddha and bodhisattvas mainly in the form of image worship.
Hinayana believed Buddha attained nibbana and was freed from the cycle of samsara. Mahayana on the other hand proclaimed that he didn’t free himself from the cycle of samsara but remained between nibbana and samsara.
Hinayana believed there was only one Buddha and next one would come only when the teachings of the previous ones would die out. Mahayana instead propagated theory of multiple buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Mahayana saw progressive decline of women in the monastic order. In fact, it was widely held that women can’t attain nibbana. They had to be reborn as males or had to undergo sex change.
While Hinayana flourished in SL, Myanmar and ASEAN, Mahayana flourished in central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.
Monasteries got wealthy and monks could have a comfortable life now inside the monastery. Thus buddhism began to draw away from the people which contributed in the ultimate decline.
They also encouraged the donations to sangha and monasteries as they proclaimed that merit can also be transferred from one person to another by the act of donation.
Factors Responsible for the Rise
The growth of secondary activities and growing prosperity: The Buddhist sangha and monasteries could no longer afford to lose the donations from the growing body of artisans and merchants because if they did so, they would lose out to other religion. Orthodox Buddhism didn’t allow it.
The great influx of foreigners: These foreigners didn’t have a strong prior culture and hence were fertile targets for conversion. They were also the new rulers, hence in order to grow, Buddhism had to modify itself to accept them and their practices like eating non-vegetarian food.
Under the influence of prosperity and the need to convert, elaborate images of Buddha were made and worshipped which inspired awe and the concept was easier to understand.
The rise of the Mahayana is a reflection of the growing popularity of the bhakti sentiment in the age. Devotion to the god was getting popular at the cost of quest for attainment of true knowledge. Mahayana practices clearly adopted bhakti principles. By worshipping Buddha and looking upon him as a benevolent god, the bhaktas could hope for his grace and attainment of salvation.
Mahayana was more pragmatic religion and was more suited to the needs of the age. It allowed for acceptance of grants in form of gold and silver.
Many monasteries / universities were setup which became great consumer of items and thousands of pupils and monks resided there. So settlements developed around them to supply.
They also became tourist centers hence promoted urbanization.
It changed the way commons worshipped. Earlier relics of Buddha, his symbols were worshipped. Now his images were built and worshipped.
It aided in the growth of Bhakti.
There was great amount of cultural exchange with other religions.
Led to development of sculpture. Initially Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati schools, relief sculpture, later images of Tara.
Led to development of Sanskrit literature.
In the early-medieval period, it led to the ascendancy of Buddhist tantricism. Buddha and his consort Tara were important objects in the Tantric school.
Vaishnavism / Bhagwatism
Evolution of Bhagwatism
Assimilation of Non-Vedic Traditions :- Vishnu was a minor god in Vedic times who represented sun and the fertility cult. By 2nd cent BC, he merged with a god called Narayan. Narayan was a non-Vedic tribal god and was also called bhagvat and his followers were called bhagvatas. Later the Vishnu-Narayan god was associated with Krishna - a legendary hero of Vrishni tribe in W India. The epic of Mahabharata was recast to show Krishna as Vishnu. These three streams together led to the birth of Bhagwatism / Vaishnavism by 200 BC.
Changes into Brahmanism :- Many new doctrines like the doctrines of avatars, holy trinity, preservation of social order and practices like devotion, personal worship, pilgrimage etc. came into being to adapt brahmanism to the changing needs. By the early medieval age, the doctrines of avatars was firmly in place. Pantheons of gods were built like Vishnu-Lakshmi-Shesnag etc. By 12th century, the character of Radha came up perhaps as an influence of Bhakti movement.
Interactions with Major Traditions :- These religions interacted and borrowed liberally from each other. Idol worship was borrowed from Jainism and Buddhism. Shrines of various religions shared common pool of auspicious symbols, ornamentation, sculpture styles etc. Ahimsa became a major theme in Vaishnavism. Now even in sacrifices no animals were killed and people increasingly took to vegetarian food. Even Buddha and Jain tirthankara Rishabh began to be considered as Vishnu avatars by the early-medieval age.
Interaction with Minor Traditions :- The span of Hinduism was grown by assimilating the various minor traditions in its fold. The gods were usually assimilated as minor gods or assistants / gatekeepers to Vishnu while the religious practices were inculcated in a slightly modified form. There were some traditions, however, particularly the Tantric traditions which were outrightly criticized by the mainstream religion and shunned.
Royal Patronage :- Association with Vishnu became a major source of royal legitimacy. The kings began to use emblems associated with him (garuda seal of Guptas, boar emblem of Chalukyas), began to call themselves ‘the foremost worshipper’ (param-bhagvata by CG II), donate land to Vishnu temples (Bhitari inscription of Skandagupta).
Construction of Temples :- Vishnu temples had begun to be created from Mauryan age (Nagari in Chittorgarh). In post-Mauryan age, the temples increased but were still built of mud and wood super-structure and had oblong and apsidal architectures (e.g..?). In Gupta age, many temples came up - the famous being Deogarh, Bhitari etc. These temples and shrines shared space and themes with other religions as well.
The Concept of Bhakti
The tribal god, Bhagvat, was thought to be the divine counterpart of the tribal chief. Just as the tribal chief received gifts from his kinsmen and distributed it among the tribals, the god too bestowed good fortune on his bhaktas on receiving their love and devotion.
Bhakti means offering loyalty and devotion to God. Ahimsa was a part of it as non-violence was associated with the fertility cult of the Vedic god Vishnu. People began to take only vegetarian food.
Reasons for its Spread
The concept of Ahimsa was suited to the need of the age in order to protect animal wealth from sacrifices for agriculture.
The new religion was liberal enough to offer space to foreigners and women, vaishyas, shudras, merchants etc. Anybody could seek refuge in the god.
It rejected austerities and the priestly domination as well. It was easy enough to be practiced by the masses.
The new religion received patronage from many kings both in N and S India.
Other Religions
Harappan Religion
Mother goddesses - two types. Slim type and pregnant type. Both indicate fertility beliefs. Phallus. Male and female fertility organs.
Pipal tree and the tree spirit shown in some seals. Bulls and is associated with Nandi and similarly the Siva. Instead of imposing the later Gods on such evidences it is more appropriate to see them as a contributory factor in the evolution of later concepts.
Animal sacrifice indicated by a seal. Another seal indicates human sacrifice. Kalibangan fire altars (though they could equally well be hearths). Temples were absent.
There is a clear absence of large monumental burials indicating absence of kings.
The burials of Harappans are simple with fewer grave goods. Only simple pottery of daily use and some scattered objects are kept indicating Harappans didn’t expect the dead to have huge demand and also such occasions were not a means of wealth and social status demonstrations.
Even after the decline of Harappan civilization, Harappan style burials continued (specially in H cemetery culture) indicating their contribution.
Sangam Age Religion in South India
It was strongly animistic in character. Hero stones, trees, water, stars etc. were worshipped as symbols of greater forces. These practices continued for a long time.
The Sangam literature tells us Madurai was a city of temples even in Sangam age. Some N Indian deities began to be worshipped as well.
Yaksha and Yakshini / Naga and Nagini
Yakshas were initially associated with nature and wealth and yakshis with fertility. They were benevolent powerful deities who were worshipped with offerings and devotion.
But later they were absorbed in dominant religions and demonized by them and dismissed as localized rural deities.
But historical evidence shows otherwise. The colossal image of yaksha @ Parkham (Mathura) shows it was an urban work meant for large number of people. It was specially worshipped by traders indicating association of yaksha with wealth. Similarly the yakshas of Besnagar and Pawaya hold a money bag in their hands. Female deities are still worshipped today for child protection - something done by yakshis earlier.
Even though in later the colossal images disappeared, the private images continued in homes indicating continuation of private worship.
Similarly colossal figures of nagas and nagis have been found in Jamalpur (Mathura), elaborate brick and stone naga temple at Sonkh (Mathura), iron naga figurine at Peddabankur (Karimnagar) indicate that naga worship too was widespread.
Shivaism
The Pasupati seal recovered from Harappan civilization has been associated with Harappa.
Rudra was a Vedic god who grew in importance during the later Vedic age and subsequently multiple minor gods / traditions got integrated with Siva.
By 200 BC, the linga / phallic / fertility cult began to be closely associated with Siva and he was worshipped in the linga form. Gradually all religious texts began to worship Siva in this form. Evidences of linga worship emerge in this period. At Bhuteshwar in Mathura, earliest evidence of linga worship has been found (linga on a platform under pipal tree enclosed by railing and two winged creatures worshipping it). Mukhalingas and anthromorphic form worships also became popular. Guddimalam, Nagarjunkonda show early evidences of linga worship in temples.
By the Gupta age, many Shiva purans and other texts were composed and the pantheon of Shiva i.e. Shiva, Shakti, Parvati, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Ganga, Nandi were completed. Siva began to be worshipped in human form (idols from Kosam), in linga / mukhalinga form (important idol is from Nagod), in Ardhanarishwar form and in Harihar form (which is a reflection of Siva and Vishnu bhakti strands coming together). That the concept of the trinity of gods gained tremendous influence in Gupta period reflects the assimilatory character of the bhakti strands and the society in the age.
Shiva and Shakti coming together led to deep influence of tantric ideas.
As a result of Bhakti movement, Agamas were composed which attached prime importance to bhakti. There were 3 sects which recognized the authority of Agamas - Shiva Siddhanta (in S India), Kashmir Shivaism and Lingayat (in Karnataka). The Shiva Siddhanta believes Shiva to be the creator of universe along with Shakti, the Kashmir Shivaism believes he created the universe by his creative will and the universe is mere mirror reflection of him. Siva and soul are one and same. The lingayats rejected all the brahmanical distinctions and believed in supremacy of bhakti.
Other sects were Pasupati sect who were against the Vedic traditions. Then there were kapaliks who were influenced by tantricism and had many questionable practices including human sacrifice, eating in skulls.
They differed from bhakti as they didn’t merely preach monotheism but also actively attacked religious hypocrisy. They questioned brahmanism, theory of rebirth, norms of caste system, untouchability. They encouraged certain practices disapproved in the dharmashastras like late post puberty marriages, remarriage of widows. They advocated better status of women (but barred their women from becoming priests). Shiva was worshipped in the form of the phallic cult or the linga. They resorted to burial instead of cremation. They won the support of the lower castes but themselves became a caste later on.
Shakti Worship
Goddess worship had been an integral part of Indian religion since stone ages and continued through Harappan civilization and later chalcolithic communities.
In the Purans, attempt was made to bring together some of these traditions into the brahmanical fold under the name of shakti. Later on Durga, Kali etc. were merged into it. Since female worship was popular among tribes, she is shown to be associated with hills, rivers, caves, gardens. All this was done as a part of the brahmanisation of these tribes. As the number and influence of these tribes grew, so did the forms of the goddess, her powers and importance and the forms of worshipping her. Multiple Durga images have been found in Mathura region (pre-Gupta) along with an image of her depicted as killing Mahisasur.
By Gupta age, she came to be associated with Siva probably because both gods had a fierce side and a kind side.
By early-Medieval age, the forms had firmly extended to include Matrikas, Yoginis etc. That it was mainly an object of worship in the tribal and forest areas can be inferred from the fact that all the 64 yogini temples are located in Chattisgarh, MP and Odisha in the tribal areas.
Shvetambara-Digambar Schism in Jainism
The traditions of both sects recall a sudden split although in different manners and of course blaming each other. The archaeological evidences suggest otherwise. The split was a gradual process.
The move from total nudity to wearing clothes was a slow one. All the early images of Jain tirthankaras from Mathura were naked. Only in 5 cent image was a tirthankara shown wearing lower garment and with time, the images shown wearing clothes became more in proportion. The council of Valabhi in 5 cent AD may have hardened the divide between the two sects. It was purely a svetambara gathering and no digambar was present there.
Tantricism
Shakti (Energy) is the central theme of universe according to Tantricism. It formed many secret sects and was based on secret mantras, rituals, magic and questionable practices. A paraphernalia of symbols, altars etc. was maintained.
Tantricism was divided into many sects, the principle ones were associated with worship of Vishnu, Siva and Shakti. It affected buddhism specially and led to its quick disappearance. Even Huen tsang tells us that in a place called Udyan there were thousands of monks and multiple viharas once but now most of them had fallen into disuse and whatever monks were left believed more in tantricism and knew little about buddhism. As a result of the influence of tantricism the form of buddhism changed from Mahayana to Mantrayana and Vajrayana in the east (in the west it was already finished). Then in opposition to Vajrayana, Sahajayana developed in Bengal (who believed in simple living and denounced the multiple rituals). Apart from the influence of tantricism (which reduced its difference from Hinduism), Buddhism also suffered because its message of ahimsa didn’t resonate with the warlike needs of the feudal society.
Tantricism was not a new phenomenon and had been prevalent since ages including its influence on Atharva Veda. It became specially popular in Bengal, Assam, Punjab, Kashmir, Nepal, Odisha, Central India and S India. Hilly areas were special centers. One of the reasons it grew so quickly in early medieval age was the spread of brahmanism into the various tribal areas of India. Thus it denounce casteism and many of its gurus came from lower castes. Naturally it was condemned by brahmanism but later on attempts were made to integrate it and we can see its impact on many temple sculptures - specially in Odisha and central India and also in tantricism texts which began to recognize caste differences.
Schools of Indian Philosophy
Schools of Indian philosophy are a part of Hindu philosophy has a long history originating in ancient India with several scholars intrigued by the mysteries of life and death, metaphysics, purpose of existence, belief in God etc.
They codified their world views in what is referred to as schools of philosophy with each of them having extensive literature.
Almost all Indian schools of thought accepted the theory of karma and rebirth, and the ideal of moksha is conceived as liberation from the cycle of births and deaths.
Moksha/liberation is considered as the highest goal of human struggle.
These schools of Indian philosophy can broadly be divided into two categories:
Orthodox(Astik)
Heterodox(Nastik)
Difference :- Orthodox schools recognize the authority of Vedas while heterodox schools don’t believe in the authority of Vedas.
Orthodox (Astik) Schools
1. Samkhya
The early Samkhya philosophy denied the need of a divine authority for creation if universe. Instead, it said, everything was derived from nature or prakriti.
Around 4 cent AD, concept of spirit or purush was added and creation of universe was attributed to both prakriti and purush together. Thus it became spiritualistic from being materialistic.
Salvation can be attained by true knowledge which can be acquired through hearing (shabd), perception (pratyaksh) and inference (anumana). This was a scientific way of enquiry.
2. Yoga
Control over sense, body and mind is the key.
Salvation can be achieved through meditation and specific exercises. Through the exercises, mind can get away from the worldly matters. It indicates progress in medical science as well as renunciation tendencies.
3. Nyaya
It was a system based on logic. It took many ideas of Vaisheshika and expand them. It gives a system of logic to explain the particularities of the plurality of things Vaisheshika seeks to explain.
There are 5 stages in Nyaya style of argument - (i) State the hypothesis (ii) Give the reason for hypothesis (iii) Give an example which serves as a rule to support the hypothesis (iv) Connect the rule to the hypothesis (v) Restate the hypothesis. Eg. (i) There is fire on the hill. (ii) We can say this because there is smoke there. (iii) Where there is smoke, there is fire. (iv) There is smoke, which is associated with fire, on the hill. (v) So, there is fire on the hill.
True knowledge is the key to salvation. Perception, hearing and inference can help in attaining true knowledge.
4. Vaisheshika
It concerns mainly with dharma which is that thing which gives highest good. Since Vedas deal with dharma, Vedas have authority.
Vaisheshika means to explore the particularities in all things. They identify 7 categories of things which exist out of which substance is one. And then go on to say that all substance is made of atoms. Earth, fire, water, air and ether are the five elements; space, time, mind and self are 4 more.
All atoms are indestructible and join together to form the various things we see around.
It later diluted its scientific view and put its faith in God and salvation.
5. Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa)
Mimamsa means reasoning or explaining. It sought to explain the Vedas from the point of view of nature and the goal of Vedic rituals.
Vedas contain eternal truth. In early Mimamsa, God was irrelevant and Vedic sacrifices were central. Later on it came to accept God as supreme.
A person enjoys heavens as long as his accumulated good deeds last. When they expire, he comes back to earth. And to do good deeds, one must perform Vedic sacrifices.
Salvation can be achieved only through performance of Vedic rituals.
The worldly objects are similar to things seen in a dream. Reality is one (a-dvaita) and plurality is maya. Maya is a product of ignorance.
Using this, he united the seemingly multiple philosophies of upanishads into one.
He held knowledge of upanishads superior to the brahmanical sacrifices.
He held brahma to be one and the ultimate reality which is without attributes and is unchanging.
The purpose of the philosophy is to attain salvation which is possible only via true knowledge and true knowledge is realizing oneness of atma and brahma.
He considers brahm to have attributes like men. The relationship between brahma and atma is like rose and redness. Both are distinct, yet cannot exist without each other. This was his rejection of Shankara’s advaita and his vishista dvaita.
The path of bhakti was open to all irrespective of caste. He accepted the special privileges of the higher castes but opposed the exclusion of shudras from worshipping in the temples. He promoted monotheism and communal harmony. Although the temple was not opened to the shudras a number of subsidiary gods and rituals crept in.
He thinks devotion / love is a more effective way to salvation compared to Sankara’s knowledge. Some of his followers argued that one must strive for this forgiveness (of the deity) but others believed that the deity selects those who are to be liberated - and it may be a random process. However his follower Madhava believed that the selection was not so arbitrary and the deity selects the person based on his purity of the soul.
Ramanuja was like a bridge between bhakti and the brahmanical religion. He drew some of his ideas from upanishads like the concept of soul and the brahma and the unison of both for the attainment of nirvana from rebirth. The emphasis on the individual was a feature of the bhakti perhaps borrowed from the shramanic religions.
It focuses on knowledge and interpretation of Upanishads. Where it departs from Mimamsa is its stress on knowledge as opposed to Vedic sacrifices.
Brahma is the only real thing and everything else is unreal or maya. Self (atma) and brahma are eternal, unchanging and indestructible.
A person’s current life is a result of his deeds in past life. So whatever miseries he is facing are not a fault of this world, so he should keep doing whatever he is supposed to.
Knowledge of self (atma) is knowledge of brahma. By attaining knowledge, one can attain salvation.
Heterodox (Nastik) Schools
1. Lokayata (Charvaka)
It concerns with this world only and doesn’t believe in the next.
There is no divine agency, no soul, no salvation, no life-birth cycle. All these things are inventions of Brahmans.
One must live in this world only.
2. Buddhism
3. Jainism
4. Ajivikas
Everything - down to the most insignificant thing - is pre determined.
Note: Out of all these systems, only Uttara Mimansa (Vedanta) has a place for God in it.
Features of Hindu Religion
The Core :- Vedic gods remained the core. With time, importance of early Vedic gods like Indra, Varuna decreased and that of other gods like Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti increased.
Adaptability :- With changing times and changing needs, new features were introduced to retain the influence. The doctrine of avatars and multiple forms enabled the core to modify itself and include other local and major gods as it spread and interacted with other major and minor traditions. Similarly when the bhakti movement grew, the core adapted again to bend away from brahmanical sacrifices towards devotion via temples. Pantheons and hierarchy of gods was built to accommodate local gods.
Interaction with Major Traditions :- These religions interacted and borrowed liberally from each other. Idol worship was borrowed from Jainism and Buddhism. Shrines of various religions shared common pool of auspicious symbols, ornamentation, sculpture styles etc. Ahimsa became a major theme. Now even in sacrifices no animals were killed and people increasingly took to vegetarian food. Even Buddha and Jain tirthankara Rishabh began to be considered as Vishnu avatars by the early-medieval age.
Interaction with Minor Traditions :- The span of Hinduism was grown by assimilating the various minor traditions in its fold. The gods were usually assimilated as minor gods or assistants / gatekeepers to the major gods and goddesses while the religious practices were inculcated in a slightly modified form. Examples are yaksha, yakshi, nagas etc. which became subordinate. The local forms of goddess worship which had been prevailing in many parts of India were mostly inculcated in one Shakti goddess. There were some traditions, however, particularly the Tantric traditions which were outrightly criticized by the mainstream religion and shunned.
Changes in Religious Practices :- Brahmanical sacrifices gave way to the temple and idol worship with the growing influence of bhakti.
South Indian Bhakti
Differences between S Indian and N Indian Bhakti
N Indian bhakti comes from the Sanskrit root bhaja which means to share or participate. So N Indian bhakt participates in the divine. S Indian saints expressed their devotion towards god through ambu or love. The use of Tamil version of term bhakti came up very late.
The S Indian bhakti saints themselves are worshipped unlike N.
In N, Krishna was a popular item of bhakti whereas in S, it was Vishnu and Shiva primarily which were worshipped. Avatars were secondary.
S Indian bhakti focused on temples where proceedings were controlled by brahmans. N Indian bhakti advocated a more direct approach in religion.
S Indian bhakti was against Buddhism and Jainism whereas N Indian bhakti had no such elements.
Differences between Alwars and Naynars
The Naynars expressed the relationship between God and bhakt as that of master and slave while the Alwars expressed it as that of bridegroom and bride, lover-beloved, friend, mother, father as well.
Vaishnavism and Shaivism were but a religious form given to movements that would have surfaced in any case
Some believe that they were an expression of local sentiment questioning the attempts at homogenization made by Vedic brahmanism with its insistence on orthodox practices and social inequality. Buddhism and Jainism were less popular in the devotional movement because they advocated mortification of body through ascetic practices.
The appearance of the movement was not unexpected because it had a long gestation period as can be seen from the Sangam poems of love. The deity was now visualized as the lover. The emphasis was not on the object of worship but on the relationship involved in the worship.
Why did Bhakti become so popular in the later half of 1st millennium AD?
It may have been a reaction to the Sanskrit culture introduced into the elite circles and a reluctance to be subordinated to this culture. Bhakti’s role was now similar to what Buddhism and Jainism had performed in 1st millennium BC in N India. Bhakti rejected the claim of closeness of brahmans to God and also the exclusion of the lower castes.
Political aspects of bhakti have been suggested as well. The king is seen as the focus of loyalty and demands devotion from his subjects like the deity receives it from his worshippers. This may have encouraged the rulers to patronize the devotional sects.
Bhakti may also have been related to the upward mobility of some peasant and artisan groups and also with the freedom provided by the cities.
Bhakti saints also used common language while the brahmanical religion used the alien Sanskrit. They were also open to women.
Contribution of Buddhism to Bhakti
The concept of a compassionate deity came from Buddhism specifically from its notion of bodhisattvas.
On Women :- It advocated that the path of bhakti was open for all including women. But the leadership of the movement remained in male hands only. At the general level, it was only towards the time of Ramanuja that women devotees were allowed a greater role.
On Untouchability :- Though there were a couple saints belonging to the untouchable castes which shows that path of bhakti was open to all, but their stories also show that entry of these saints into temples was not an easy one. But bhakti did try to create a community across the castes.
Sufism
Philosophy
It rejected the quest for jannat in Muslim world and instead advocated the absolute union with God.
Sheikh Muin-ud-din Chisti was the first saint and he came with Ghori. He settled in Ajmer. His disciple was Khwaja Bakhtiyar whose disciple was Baba Farid. Baba Farid’s disciple was Nizam-ud-din Auliya. Sufism became very popular under these.
Baba Farid’s teachings find their way in Guru Granth Sahib. He was a humanist. He never criticized any religion.
It was founded in Sind and Multan became its chief center. Baha-ud-din Zakariya was its main saint. Later on it spread to Gujarat, Bengal, Hyderabad, Bijapur as well.
Sufism spread there even before the Muslim rulers went there. Chisti saint Sheikh Burhan was its founder in Deccan who was the disciple of Nizam-ud-din Auliya and he stayed in Daulatabad. Haji Rumi established his center @ Bijapur. After Sheikh Gensu Daraj, Chisti silsila became very popular in Deccan. A large madarssa was established in Gulberg due to his efforts and it became an important center of sufism in Deccan. They were open to all sects and even held discussion with the hindu saints.
It was their impact only that Bahmani kings followed liberal policies.
Initial Chisti saints received great honor in the society and from the state. But they retained their independence from it. Baba Farid is said to be the son in law of Balban and yet he maintained his family in extreme poverty. Nizam-ud-din Auliya never went to any sultan’s court. Not only did they maintain their distance from the state on the ideological front but also denied any economic assistance from them - even for their operations.
However, by the time of Sheikh Gensu Daraj sufi philosophy had changed and it was no longer considered necessary that one should live in poverty for the pursuit of mysticism and proximity to God. So they came close to the rulers and in S India, Chisti silsila began to accept state assistance to carry out its programme.
Suharawardi silsila, on the other hand, maintained close relations with the state from the onset. They believed that by using state assistance they can help the poor. In fact just like extremist maulvis used to influence the policies of the state towards extremist Islam, they too could tilt state policy towards moderate and humanist form of Islam. They didn’t consider wealth as evil provided it was used in good deeds.
India had a long tradition of Bhakti. Harappan, vedic, bhagwatism / vaishnavism, naynar / alwars, testimony of Al-Berouni are all examples.
Factors and Forces Responsible for the Growth
Defeat of the Rajputs and breakup of the brahman-rajput nexus.
Challenge of Islam and degeneration of Hindu society.
Breaking up of temples and need of a religious form where it could be practiced privately.
Indian thought and philosophy was confined in the boundaries of traditionalism. Earlier Buddha had challenged it but with time even Buddhism had become a mere shadow of its past and suffered from same weaknesses as the hindu religion. Shankara had tried to break the tradition by his philosophy of advaita but his message was beyond the comprehension of common people. Bhakti was simple.
There was high degree of hypocrisy and complications in the society. Even those who agreed with Shankara’s advaita at a philosophical level were practicing discrimination in real lives.
Inner vitality of Indian culture. It was assimilatory and evolving in character.
Kabir
Dignity of human labor :- He was the first saint in nirgun bhakti who believed in the dignity of normal life and human labor despite being a saint. Thus he continued in his profession of weaving clothes till the end and didn’t give up on the world.
Reason :- He applied reason to any practice and thought. He didn’t accept something simply because it was prescribed in the religion. Instead he criticized it with no hesitation at all if it failed to stand the test of reason.
Egalitarianism :- He believed that Hindu society had fallen to a level where people accepted equality among all at the philosophical and moral level but practiced gross discriminations at the behavioral level. He thus rejected casteism and believed in equality of all.
Humanism :- He believed in love and compassion for fellow humans. He thus rejected any extremist view in religion which ran contrary to it. He believed that mankind has the ability to lift itself and religion should be there for welfare of mankind.
Monotheism :- He believed there is only one god and all religions preach the same god. Thus he had followers among both hindus and muslims.
Criticism of materialism :- Much before Marx and Rousseau he had claimed that economic inequalities are the root of all other disabilities and exploitation. He accepted money but believed everyone should have resources according to his needs. One should work hard and only earn what he needs to live. Excessive wealth brings inequalities and exploitation.
Rejection of extremism :- He rejected the extremists and narrow views of brahmins and maulvis. He instead preached communal harmony.
Nanak
Monotheism.
Anti idol worship and complete devotion to God.
Communal harmony and rejection of extremism.
Egalitarianism.
Humanism.
Assimilatory :- He even accepted the best from Islam.
His preaching had the seeds of a well organized religion. But Kabir merely criticized the ills in the society at large and wanted to remove them.
Other Bhakti Saints
Vallabhacharya :- He preached in western UP and praised Krishna.
Chaitanya :- He preached in Bengal and praised Krishna. He encouraged ecstasy music like Sufis.
Maharashtra Bhakti Saints
Ramnath, Tukaram, Namdev are the famous saints. They preached that everyone has come from the same God and hence everyone is equal. Namdev criticized casteism.
They created a cultural movement in Maharashtra, led to the development of a common language, led to a feeling of unity and paved the way for eventual emergence of Marathas.
Nirgun Bhakti vs Sagun Bhakti
Nirgun saints (Kabir, Nanak, Dadu Dayal, Namdev) were not limited to any particular sect or religion in their following and in their ideas (thus were able to win followers among both hindus and muslims). But Sagun saints (Tulsidas, Mira, Chaitanya, Vallabhacharya) were tied to their particular sect.
Nirgun saints believed in worshipping god in a form without any attributes. Sagun saints believed in worshipping him in the attributes form.
Nirgun saints derived their philosophy from the upanishads. Despite advocating the attribute less form of God like Shankara where they departed from him was their emphasis on keeping their message simple and preaching in simple language and asking people to do something which they could actually do. Sagun saints derived it from epics, puranas, doctrine of avatar.
Nirgun saints emphasized more on personal devotion instead of external forms of worship and rituals. Sagun saints believed in idol worship, avatarism, devotional songs, worshipping in temples etc. and invariably paved the way for more rituals.
Nirgun saints were more progressive, humanist, rational and egalitarian in their outlook then the sagun saints. Nirgun saints openly opposed discrimination in any form - be it on the basis of caste or religion. They had no second thoughts about it. Sagun saints, on the other hand, accepted the prevailing discriminations to a certain extent. For instance even though Tulsidas was only trying to advocate complete devotion to God, in doing so he accepted even the social inequalities during Rama’s era. Mira was very soft on some traditional issues.
Nirgun bhakti can be divided into 2 sects - one which emphasized knowledge and the other which emphasized love. Sagun bhakti can be divided into 2 sects as well - one devoted to Rama and other devoted to Krishna.
Impact of Bhakti Movement - How successful were they?
We must keep in mind none of them ever was trying to start a revolution or create a new religion. They were merely preaching their ideas of humanism, egalitarianism and devotion. They probably never thought they were actors in something big.
Their success is reflected in communal harmony prevalent in India for centuries.
Marathas and Sikhs.
Contrary to the contemporary thought many saints combined sainthood with normal domestic life (Kabir, Namdev, Ravidas made shoes) and highlighted the importance of work. They showed the way how common people can practice bhakti.
Most of them were from the lower classes. They were able to create a serious challenge.
Social Composition of the Followers of Bhakti Movement
Even though today people from all sections praise them in their time their following was limited to certain sections only. The elite sections of the society kept themselves aloof from their movement.
The satnami sect in Braj land emerged from peasants and petty traders and reflects Kabir tradition. It also included artisans who were treated as lower / out castes.
Nanak’s followers were mainly peasants. It must be remembered that peasants constituted the bulk of the society and were one of the most exploited lot.
Al Berouni tells us that the small artisans were treated as untouchables and were forced by the society to follow their traditional occupations only. They had no scope of social mobility. They saw a way out in bhakti to improve their social position and joined it as well.
Al Berouni tells us that Jats were mainly shepherds and had a very low status in the society. They flocked to the nirgun saints so that they could be freed from their traditional occupation and practice farming as we find they became farmers by Akbar’s time. This was one major reason for the emergence of Sikhism in Punjab.