Agricultural, Pastoral & Megalithic Cultures
Agricultural Pastoral Cultures
Factors Behind Beginning of Agriculture
- One theory was that climate became drier which forced men, animals and plants to move close to the water sources which changed their relationships and produced agriculture and domestication.
- Another said that domestication was the outcome of experimentation by humans. But this is not acceptable since there are many tribes today which know of agriculture but see no point in practicing it.
- One theory suggests that due to rising temperatures and rise in sea levels, the coastal people migrated inwards. This created an overpopulation stage and hence people took to agriculture. But its criticism is that there is no evidence of such a migration.
- The accepted theory is that as the weather became warmer, conditions conducive for growth of wild cereals spread. Hence wild cereals spread and eventual domestication. And because wild cereals responded positively to domestication via enhanced productivity, agriculture once begun, continued to flourish.
- Earlier the theory was that agriculture moved from west Asia to NW to east but now evidences suggest that it developed locally.
Community Life
- The beginning of agriculture and sedentary life meant better living conditions and food, better child and mother care. Hence an increase in population. This only made subsequent urbanization possible (another supporting argument for the neolithic revolution hypothesis). The surplus food also led to the potential of exchange at a later time and thus led to secondary activities.
- The beginning of agriculture led to new requirements in tools, technologies, roles etc. Hence the division of labor in society would have changed. The tools of this age are polished and the removal of rough edges must have increased their efficacy. The grass huts of mesolithic age began to give way to wattle and daub huts (constructed from the branches of trees and plastered with mud) and slowly these would have turned into mud brick structures.
- Women had been traditionally associated with food gathering. Hence it is possible earliest experiments in agriculture were made by women. But the association of men with agriculture would have truly revolutionized it. This age also saw a shift from kin labor to non kin labor who could be paid for by the food surplus. Employing captives in agriculture is easier than employing them in pastoral activities (since they may run away with animals).
- There are evidences of specialized crafts from Mehrgarh, Ganeshwar, Kunjhun unlike the notion of subsistence level agriculture. This led to growth of trade and commerce. Even a minimal specialization can give birth to exchange of goods.
- Many areas give evidence of segregation of settlement by occupation. This indicates emergence of some kind of collective community decision making.
- The agriculture must have led to an increase in belief in fertility cult. Similarly, because women give birth, fertility came to be associated with women and hence mother goddesses were worshipped.
- The increase in the number of purposeful burials indicate a growing sophistication in religious philosophies.
Phase-1: 7000 B.C - 3000 B.C
North West
Pottery
- The pottery was red, black on red ware. They made criss cross and geometric designs and birds and animals on their pottery (like Harappa).
Crafts
- Thousand of microliths found in initial period followed by neolithic tools like axes with wooden handles. Tools based on blade and celt technologies have been found and bone tools as well.
- Grinding stones, terracotta female figurines, shell and terracotta bangles, pieces of copper, worked ivory tusks etc. have been found. Fishing, precious stone working, terracotta working were important activities.
Community Life
- The burials were in open spaces between their houses. The bodies were placed in a bent position in oval pits. Secondary burials have been found indicating liminal tradition and the bones were often covered in red ochre indicating fertility beliefs. In Nal, fractional burials were found in pots. Some graves have a niche where grave goods were kept which was sealed with mud bricks.
- They were engaged in long distance trading since in the graves some precious stones have been found which could only come from Afghanistan / Baluchistan (for lapis lazuli) and Iran / Central Asia (for turquoise). Similarly the similar pottery found in the region indicates interaction among different people.
Settlements
- Mehrgarh, Kile Gul Muhammed, Siah Damb, Anjira, Mundigak, Rana Ghundai, Gumla.
- They lived in houses of handmade mud bricks with small rectangular rooms. The bricks used were of standard size and used cooking hearths.
Agriculture
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Irrigation was practiced in Rana Ghundai in Anambar Valley. In Nal, people built 2 kind of embankments. First was built along hill slopes to prevent the washing away of soil. Later crops were grown on the flattened surface. Second was where water was collected in low lying basins. This was diverted into fields.
- Granaries and grinding stones have been found. Wheat, barley and cotton (earliest producers of cotton in the world) were the main crops.
- Animals like goat, sheep, buffaloes, ram were domesticated.
Iron
- No use of iron. Copper has been found.
Similarities with Harappa
- Presence of embankments and granaries. Long distance trading of precious stone with Baluchistan, Central Asia, Afghanistan and Iran.
- The black on red ware pottery which they designed with geometrical and animal designs.
- The terracotta figurines of mother goddess, shells, bangles, ivory work etc. The standard size bricks, the rectangular rooms in the houses.
Belan Valley
Pottery
- Red ware + black-and-red ware have been found.
- Some pots bear soot marks indicating they were used for cooking.
Crafts
- Tools were based on blade and celt technology and bone tools as well.
- Terracotta beads have been found.
Settlements
- Koldihva (Allahbad), Mahagara (Allahbad), Kunjhun, Lahuradeva.
- Houses were made of mud brick and wattle and daub and had thatched roofs made of grass.
Agriculture
- Remains of rice have been found here (earliest producers of rice in the world ~ 6K BC) along with barley and pea.
- Animals like goat, sheep, buffalo, ram were domesticated.
Iron
- Not used.
Similarities to Harappa
- None.
Phase-2: 3000 B.C - 2000 B.C
Kashmir Culture
Pottery
- Burzahom pottery was handmade, ill-fired and was in grey, red, brown and buff colors. Later, a lac burnished ware emerged and the distinctive pot was a long jar with flaring rim.
Crafts
- The stone and the bone tool industries were well developed.
Settlements
- Burzahom, Gufkral, Ghaligai Caves (Swat Valley) were main centers.
- They lived in pit dwellings in the initial phase. These dwellings were mud plastered, narrow from top and wider from bottom, and had staircases. Later, they came out of the pits and covered it and used it as the hut floor. Huts were made of wattle doab.
Community Life
- From the initial periods, no burials have been found indicating people had some other means of disposing off dead. In later periods, dead began to be buried under the house floor. Both inhumation and secondary burial was practiced. The grave goods were few but the animals including pet dogs began to be buried with the deceased. Some wild animals were also buried in the grave.
- Hunting and fishing were chief activities.
Agriculture
- They cultivated wheat, barley and pea. Domesticated sheep, goat and dog.
Iron
- No iron. A copper arrowhead has been found.
Similarities to Harappa
- Evidences of some carnelian beads and depiction of a horned deity on a pottery have been taken as links with Harappan civilization.
Ganeshwar - Jodhpura Culture
Pottery
- Pottery was wheel turned, poorly fired, red in color and with incised designs. Typical pots were dish on sand.
Crafts
- Copper smelting and weapon making were important and few copper weapons have been found. They also used microliths.
Settlements
- Ganeshwar and Jodhpura in Rajasthan are the main sites.
- Houses were made of mud brick and had pebble floors.
Community Life
- They were a hunting gathering community.
Similarities to Harappa
- They used to supply copper items to early and mature Harappa phase as is evident from discovery of Harappan pottery from Ganeshwar. Other items too have been found from each other’s sites.
Kayatha Culture: 2200 - 2000 BC
Pottery
- The typical pottery is wheel turned, with red color. Designs are painted in violet or deep red only on the upper part of the vessel. Linear designs are painted. Bowls, basins, jars etc. were typical pots.
Crafts
- Plenty of microliths made of chalcedony have bee found.
- Copper axes and bangles have been found as well.
Settlements
- Kayatha is the main site.
- No complete house plans were uncovered but houses were made of mud and reed with mud plastered floors.
Agriculture
- They domesticated cattle and horses.
- They used a mace head or ring stone to turn the soil for agriculture purposes.
Similarities to Harappa
- There are similarities in the pottery and steatite micro-beads.
Savalda Culture
Pottery
- The pottery is wheel turned, medium to coarse fabric, with thick slip and chocolate colored. Designs were geometric or natural.
Crafts
- Many bone tools or beads made of shell, teracotta etc. have been found.
Settlements
- Kaothe, Daimabad and Savalda are main sites.
- Houses were round or oval with a sloping roof.
Community Life
- A phallus shaped object has been found at Daimabad.
Middle Gangetic Valley
Pottery
- The pottery was hand made, red or black ware and had ochre colored linear and geometric designs.
Crafts
- Tools were made using blade and celt technology. Bone tools have also been found.
- Bead making, terracotta figurines including humped bull, snakes and birds were important crafts.
Settlements
- Chirand, Senaur, Sohgaura, Chech Kutubpur, Tardih are chief centers.
- People lived in circular wattle and daub houses.
Agriculture
- Rice was the main crop. Pulses like moong and masur were grown too. Wheat and barley grown and goat and sheep domesticated.
South India
Pottery
- The pottery was handmade and coarse. Sometimes a pre-firing designs were applied to it in red, black and brown and sometimes post firing designs were made in red ochre.
Settlements
- Ash mound sites are Utnur, Budhihal, Kodekal, Watgal. Evidences from Budhihal show that people lived near these cattle pens for long time as well. Key areas are Raichur Doab (R. Krishna and R. Tungbhadra) and Shorapur Doab (R. Krishna and R. Bhima).
- Earliest neolithic sites here were located on the hilltops and plateaus. People practiced domestication and some agriculture on the hill bottoms. Second phase is that of use or red ware. In the third phase (~1500 BC), people moved down the hills and began to practice agriculture on a large scale.
Community Life
- Ash mounds are a distinctive feature. These mounds were crated by repeated burning of cow dung. The cattle were enclosed in a pen surrounded by heavy tree trunks. Their dung was burnt perhaps to mark a seasonal festival or beginning/end of migrations.
- Utnur shows evidences of the cattle pen being built and dung burnt repeatedly.
Agriculture
- Earliest evidences of betel nuts have been found from Watgal. Barley was the major crop while wheat and pea were also grown. Domestication of cattle, goat and sheep was the main activity in this phase and agriculture only became important later.
Similarities to Harappa
- They used to trade with Harappa mainly on gold.